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Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) are a group of several thousand human-made chemicals that are manufactured for their oil and water-resistant properties. Since the 1940s, PFAS have been used in a wide range of consumer products, industrial processes, and in some fire-fighting foams (called aqueous film-forming foam or AFFF). This has resulted in PFAS being released into the air, water and soil.

State Regulatory Actions
Firefighting Foam
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Additional Resources

Background and Sources of PFAS

PFAS are made up of chains of carbon and fluorine linked together. The carbon-fluorine bond is one of the shortest and strongest bonds in nature and does not easily break down under natural conditions. For this reason, PFAS are often referred to as “forever chemicals.”

PFAS move easily through soil, water, and air. These chemicals can bioaccumulate, or build up, in blood and organs over time, and studies have shown risks to human health.

The two most common and best-studied compounds in the PFAS family are perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS). Although PFOA and PFOS are no longer manufactured in the United States, they have been replaced with different PFAS such as hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (used in GenX technology), perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS), 3-perfluoroheptyl propanoic acid (7:3 FTCA), and n-methyl perfluorooctanesulfonamide (NMeFOSA). PFOA and PFOS are still used in manufacturing in other countries so consumer goods imported to the United States may contain PFOA or PFOS.

Many industrial and consumer processes use PFAS to make everyday items non-stick, or water-, oil-, or stain-resistant.

For more information about past and present uses of PFAS, please refer to Table 2-6 on the Interstate Technology Regulatory Council's PFAS Uses and Products webpage.

Groups such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are working toward reducing and removing PFAS in certain categories above. U.S. EPA’s Greener Products and Services page identifies products with reduced or no PFAS in certified products, and U.S. FDA is phasing out PFAS in food packaging.

Since many consumer products contain PFAS, disposal of these items into landfills may be a significant source of PFAS in the environment. In the landfill, PFAS can move into the liquid waste (leachate) collection system. Although leachate is either treated on-site or taken to a wastewater treatment facility to be treated, current treatment processes typically do not remove PFAS.

Wastewater from homes and businesses is another source of PFAS for wastewater treatment facilities. Normal water use from laundry, bathing, and cleaning may release PFAS from products and materials into water washed down drains. Treatment of this wastewater produces both liquid and solid wastes which may then contain PFAS. The solid waste is a nutrient-rich semisolid often called biosolid or sludge. Biosolids are used as fertilizers for crops or gardens and may distribute PFAS into the environment, leading to the contamination of air, soil, surface water, and groundwater. Private septic systems may also release PFAS into the surrounding soil, groundwater, and surface water from normal household water use.

When released to surface water, freshwater fish and waterfowl can be exposed and accumulate PFAS in their bodies. Plants grown using fertilizer or water contaminated with PFAS can accumulate PFAS from fertilizer or water. Livestock or wildlife eating plants grown with PFAS-containing fertilizer or contaminated water, including silage, can accumulate PFAS in their bodies.

PFAS has been found in:

    • Plants, fruits, and vegetables
    • Livestock, including milk from dairy cows
    • Wildlife
    • Freshwater fish
    • Waterfowl

PFAS are used in manufacturing as both raw materials to develop, treat or coat products, and as agents to keep other harmful chemicals from entering the air. The release of PFAS from industrial sources can be from direct waste streams from the facility, unintentional releases to the air, spills, or from disposal of materials containing PFAS.

Aqueous Film-Forming Foams (AFFF) are Class B commercial firefighting foams historically produced with PFOS, PFHxS, or polyfluorinated precursors that break down to PFOA or other PFAS. These foams are used at airports, military installations, petroleum refineries and chemical manufacturing plants for fire and flammable vapor suppression as well as for training purposes. AFFF may also be used in normal firefighting operations by fire departments. They have long shelf lives and despite newer products being available, may still be stored and used at these sites. When used, AFFF has the potential to contaminate soil, groundwater, and surface water. Newer products, referred to as “modern fluorotelomer foams,” are available and are not made with PFOS or PFOA precursors, but rather with other PFAS analytes that contain fewer carbon atoms. These modern foams can breakdown to PFAS compounds that may be less toxic.

Routes of Exposure

PFAS has been measured in indoor air, outdoor air, dust, food, water, and various consumer products. Potential routes of human exposure to PFAS include ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation. Current scientific literature indicates that people are primarily exposed to PFAS through the ingestion of food and water. Occupational exposure to PFAS for some individuals, such as those working in PFAS manufacturing facilities, installing or treating carpets, or firefighters using PFAS containing firefighting gear or foams, may be higher than the general public.

Ingestion

People are primarily exposed to PFAS through:

Ingestion of contaminated food and water, including foods packaged in containers or wrappers containing PFAS
Hand-to-mouth contact with products treated with PFAS (such as carpets and fabrics) or products that contain PFAS (such as lotions and cosmetics)
Incidental ingestion of household dust

Consuming foods with PFAS allows PFAS to accumulate in humans. Once swallowed, PFAS can enter the bloodstream due to its ability to bind to blood proteins such as albumin, and typically distributes to the liver, kidneys, and blood.

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends consumers eat a varied, well-balanced diet, noting that results from initial PFAS testing in the general food supply do not support needing to avoid certain foods due to PFAS contamination. More information may be obtained from the Food and Drug Administration.

Dermal

PFAS chemicals are not easily absorbed through the skin; therefore, dermal exposure is considered a less significant route of exposure for most people. In individuals with high occupational exposures, this may pose a risk.

Inhalation

Both outdoor and indoor air may contain PFAS. PFAS in outdoor air may be due to manufacturing releases. Clothing, textiles, and carpets treated with PFAS may result in higher concentrations of PFAS in indoor air. Some PFAS are volatile chemicals, meaning they can easily evaporate into the air. Researchers are currently studying the risks from breathing PFAS released into the air.

Ways to Reduce Exposure

Preventing all exposure to PFAS is not practical due to the widespread past and present use of PFAS in household products. Exposure can be reduced by avoiding or limiting exposure with some products, as follows:

For Private Water Well Users

PFAS does not have any taste, color or odor in drinking water. The only way to confirm the presence of PFAS is through proper sampling and analysis at a laboratory accredited to perform validated PFAS analytical methods. Sample collection should be done carefully to avoid contamination from items such as clothing, food and beverage packaging, and personal hygiene products.

If you have a private water well and are concerned with PFAS in your drinking water, contact the Illinois Department of Public Health (IDPH) for help finding a laboratory. IDPH can also provide a health interpretation of your results and provide treatment recommendations.

A searchable list of accredited laboratories is available through the National Environmental Laboratory Accreditation Conference (NELAC).

Home Water Treatment Options

There are products available that can remove or reduce PFAS in drinking water in your home: granular activated carbon, reverse osmosis (RO), and anion exchange filters are three options. These may be point-of-use treatments installed underneath the kitchen sink or counter-top pitcher options that are refilled as needed. Both options require the filters to be changed at regular intervals. For private water well users who do not receive water from a community, or public, water supply, certified whole home treatments using one of the methods above may be an option.

When choosing a treatment to remove PFAS, consider the following:

Type of PFAS identified in water through laboratory testing with an approved method
Faucets used for drinking water, cooking, and making ice
Refrigerators and ice dispensers with connected water lines
Certified treatment options (NSF or ANSI certified) to effectively reduce and remove certain PFAS
Manufacturer's recommendations on when to change filter material and how to dispose
Initial install costs from $20 - $1,000 with varying costs for regular maintenance

Bottled Water

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates food, which includes bottled water; however, the FDA has not yet established standards for PFAS in bottled water. Since 2019, the FDA has been testing for PFAS in certain food and water as part of the Total Diet Study. No detections of PFAS have been found in the limited analysis of carbonated and non-carbonated bottled water.

Consumers who choose to buy and drink bottled water should check to make sure they are obtaining bottled water from a supplier who is testing for PFAS in their water supply, or that bottled water is treated through a process to remove PFAS.

The International Bottled Water Association (IBWA) has established the following limits for their members providing bottled water to consumers:

5 parts per trillion for one PFAS
10 parts per trillion for more than one PFAS

Please note that this group does not represent all bottled water manufacturers. Check the bottled water label for information about reverse osmosis or activated carbon filtration methods as they are the two technologies most commonly used for PFAS removal.

Since U.S. EPA has now finalized MCLs for certain PFAS, the FDA must evaluate the appropriateness of PFAS standards in bottled water as required by Section 410 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. More information on the PFAS studies being conducted in food and water by the FDA can be found on the FDA PFAS webpage.

Health Effects

General

PFAS are bioaccumulative, meaning they build up in the body over time. They can take several months to several years to be eliminated from the body, depending on the particular PFAS. Exposure to PFAS does not necessarily mean that a person will get sick or experience an adverse health effect. Researchers continue working to fully understand the effects on human health. While research on the effects of PFAS exposure on human health is ongoing, current scientific studies have identified possible adverse health effects such as:

Increased cholesterol levels
Increased risk for thyroid disease
Low infant birth weights
Reduced response to vaccines in children
High blood pressure or pre-eclampsia during pregnancy

More information regarding the health effects of PFAS exposure can be found on the Illinois Department of Public Health (IDPH), Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR), and U.S. EPA webpages.

Cancer

Studies on occupational and community exposure to PFAS have found increases in the risk of kidney and testicular cancers associated with PFOA, and possible links to testicular, breast, and thyroid cancers associated with PFOS. Laboratory studies of animals suggest an increased risk of pancreatic, liver and thyroid tumors from exposure to other PFAS. PFOA is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as Group 1, carcinogenic to humans, and PFOS is classified by the IARC as Group 2B, possibly carcinogenic to humans. Illinois Environmental Protection Agency evaluates chemicals in both classifications as carcinogens.

More information regarding studies related to PFOA and PFOS carcinogenicity can be found in the IARC, National Toxicology Program (NTP), and U.S. EPA publications.

For Pregnant & Nursing Women

PFAS can be transported through umbilical cord blood and breast milk to the fetus and infant child. Given the ability of these chemicals to build up in the body, it is important to minimize exposure before, during, and after pregnancy. Pregnant women and women who plan to become pregnant may consider taking steps to reduce their overall exposure to PFAS.

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends nursing mothers continue breastfeeding, noting that the benefits outweigh the risks associated with potential PFAS exposure. More information can be found on the PFAS and Breastfeeding webpage.

For bottle-fed infants, if sampling indicates that PFAS is present in your drinking water, consider using a household drinking water treatment or bottled water that has been treated to remove PFAS when preparing formula.

For Children

Children are more sensitive than adults to the effects of PFAS and have greater exposure. They tend to drink more water relative to body weight than adults. They have higher exposure to contaminated soils and household dusts from playing outside near the ground and on treated carpets, leading to more ingestion from hand to mouth transfer than adults. Children also do not eliminate chemicals from the body as easily as adults, meaning it will take longer to remove the chemical compared to an adult. In addition to the general health effects listed above, animal studies have indicated that PFAS may be linked to growth, learning, and behavior effects.

For Pets & Other Animals

Although most research has been geared toward human health, pets are also susceptible to the health effects of PFAS through the same routes of exposure. It is important to remember that Illinois health-based guidance levels are developed based on the average body weight and water consumption rate of an adult human. Pets tend to weigh less and consume more water on a daily basis than the average adult human; therefore, pets may experience these harmful effects at lower doses. It is recommended to use the same precautions for your pets that you are taking for yourself to reduce exposure. Consult with a veterinarian for any concerns regarding the health effects on pets.

Testing Your Blood for PFAS

Most Americans have been exposed to PFAS due to widespread use of these chemicals. A blood test for PFAS can tell how much of each PFAS is in your blood, but it is not able to tell if that exposure has caused your health condition. Many of the health problems associated with PFAS are also linked to a variety of other factors including lifestyle, genetics, and environment. A PFAS blood test is not a routine test and health insurance may not cover the cost of testing. You may need to contact a private laboratory directly to arrange testing.

If you are concerned about PFAS exposure, we recommend that you first consult with a health care professional for further guidance and to better understand risk factors and potential exposures.

Regulatory Status

In recent years, U.S. EPA has taken several actions to investigate and address PFAS.

U.S. EPA PFAS Maximum Contaminant Levels

State Actions

Community Water Supply Sampling

In 2021, the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency completed a statewide investigation into the prevalence and occurrence of PFAS in finished drinking water representing all 1,749 community water supplies in Illinois. Illinois EPA notified each of the community water supplies about this important project, and appreciates their cooperation. The Illinois EPA continues to work with community water supplies where PFAS chemicals were detected to ensure residents are informed and to determine next steps to reduce exposures.

Groundwater Standard Development

35 Illinois Administrative Code (IAC) 620 establishes various aspects of groundwater quality, including method of classification of groundwater, non-degradation provisions, standards for quality of groundwater, and various procedures and protocols for the management and protection of groundwater. On December 8, 2021, Illinois EPA proposed amendments to the Part 620 regulations. The proposed amendments update toxicity data for various listed chemicals; update exposure factors; introduce groundwater quality standards for six PFAS: perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorohexanesulfonic acid (PFHxS), perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS), and hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA or GenX); and update other portions of the regulations. The Illinois Pollution Control Board has released the following regarding the proposed rule:

March 7, 2024 - Opinion and First Notice

January 23, 2025 - Opinion and Second Notice

Information on the proposed amendments may be found on the 620 Groundwater Quality page and case details can be found here.

Class B Firefighting Foam - PFAS Reduction Act (Public Act 102-0290)

Class-B firefighting foam, Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF), contains PFAS, a group of chemical compounds that has been associated with serious environmental and human health hazards. The use of AFFF near well fields or surface water bodies has the potential to contaminate groundwater and nearby drinking water supplies. Released into a waterway, AFFF may cause injury to wildlife.

The PFAS Reduction Act (Public Act 102-0290), effective January 1, 2022, regulates the use of Class B firefighting foam to minimize PFAS exposure to humans and reduce PFAS releases to the environment. Illinois EPA and the Office of the State Fire Marshal jointly developed a fact sheet on Firefighting Foam and PFAS which provides information about firefighting foam, PFAS, and the new law.

The PFAS Reduction Act introduced the following regulations in Illinois:

Prohibits the use of Class B firefighting foams with intentionally added PFAS for training and testing purposes.
Requires notification to the Illinois Emergency Management Agency (IEMA) within 48 hours of Class B firefighting foam discharge or release, including use at an emergency incident.

o IEMA 1-800-782-7860

Office of the State Fire Marshal must survey fire departments every 5 years for amount, use, and disposal of Class B firefighting foams.
Requires proper disposal of Class B firefighting foam within 90 days of expiration date.

o Do not flush, drain, or discharge to ditches, waterways, storm drains or sanitary sewers.

Prohibits the manufacture, sale, or distribution of Class B firefighting foam with intentionally added PFAS in Illinois starting January 1, 2025.

For disposal of AFFF, consult the manufacturer for disposal recommendations or refer to U.S. EPA's updated interim guidance on the destruction and disposal of PFAS. The long-term impacts of disposal are not yet well documented. At present, municipal solid waste landfills are allowed to accept Class B firefighting foam, but may chose not to. Underground injection in permitted Class I deep wells may also be a disposal option. Contact a waste disposal contractor to determine the specific options available based on your location.

U.S. EPA has also identified thermal treatment options as an available destruction technology. However, the incineration of AFFF containing PFAS is prohibited in Illinois. See 415 ILCS 5/22.62.

Interim storage of Class B firefighting foam that is not yet expired may be a reasonable alternative until destruction and disposal technologies become more available and affordable. Any entity storing Class B firefighting foam must ensure proper controls are in place to prevent releases into the environment, conduct an inventory of foam being stored, and keep strict records regarding all Class B foam.

Illinois EPA will continue to monitor updates to the federal interim guidance, which U.S. EPA has committed to reviewing at least every three years as new technology and information become available.